Introduction to Sociolinguistics

Introduction to Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is the study of aspects of societies, including cultural norms, the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Language is an important portion of identity and culture within many speech communities; also associated with members self-esteem; within these communities. Sociolinguists have structured a number of ways to categorize the languages within their status and social function domains such as vernacular. The specific concern of this paper is focusing on the significance and function evaluation of the vernacular (dialect, accent) and through the presentation used and by sociolinguistic-studies, it is intended to decide on the argument if the language change is lead by the implications, role models of media or not. Touching upon the concepts of vernaculars, dialects and diglossia is a good place to begin. The term vernacular has various meanings; but mostly refers to a language not standardized and not officially confirmed; which is used by local people. Generally, vernaculars are spread among communities living in a multilingual atmosphere where they have a different mother-language than the official language of their residence. For example; Afro-American English is a vernacular created among the group of people living in places where the standard American English was officially used; but had African languages as their mother-tonque. Standard languages, like the American English or the Received Pronunciation in Britain are classified as highly prestigious languages associated with educated; as compared to the people talking vernacular languages. Different from a vernacular; a dialect is a variety of a particular language characterized by specific regional features such as pronunciation; spoken by a specific group of people. Furthermore, according to Fergusson (1996), diglossia is a special language-situation where, in addition to the primary dialect of the language (categorized as (L)), there is a highly regulated and often more complex variety, which is used in official writings and formal speeches (categorized as (H)); but not exactly followed seen in daily conversations. Diglossic situation exists if it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation (Wardhaugh, 1998: 87). It has been observed that, in due course the standardized varieties of languages (like Standard American English) started becoming less dominant and local varieties (like African American English) became more prominen. Sociolinguists studied the origins of these changes trying to answer whether it was the social factors or impacts of the popular media that triggered these language changes. Labov suggested certain principles to justify these changes within languages: He first said that linguistic variation is transmitted to children as stylistic differentiation on the formal/informal dimension, rather than as social stratification. Formal speech variants are associated by children with instruction and punishment, informal speech with intimacy and fun. ( Labov 2001: 516) Consequently; linguistic changes from below develop first in spontaneous speech at the most informal level. They are unconsciously associated with nonconformity to sociolinguistic norms, and advanced most by youth who resist conformity to adult institutional practices ( Labov 2001:516). In connection with these principles stated by Labov (2001), the positive attitude of youth generation on the growing prestige and spreading of the non-standard languages is quite acceptable. Aftwerwards, Labov also stated that these changes were symbols of nonconformity actions against the structured social norms of appro priate behavior, and were generated in the social settings that challenged those norms. Finally, the constructive nonconformity principle of Labov (2001) concluded that these changes were spread to wider communities by those who displayed the symbols of nonconformity in larger pattern of upward mobility. Apparently, the popular media and its figures also had an indirect impact on this by disseminating these changes to language communities, as explained in detail in the relevant section; below. Likewise, Debra Spitulnik (1997) argues that mass media has a role in the construction of community, and the cultural continuity depends on a social circulation of discourse and public accessibility. The popular mass media has the ability to enact local concerns on a global stage and to merge the marginal with the dominant, the parochial with the cosmopolitan, and the local with the global' (Johnson and Ensslin 2007: 14). This is said to be a form of re-scaling often associated with the globalization of the late-modernity. In the light of these studies, the language used in songs of 50 Cent is presented with the main dialect, accent is used alongside the significance and functions of the vernacular speech. In this presented domain of popular media the vernacular is the African American English dialect with standard being the American English. Appendix 1 The use of vernacular during rapping, affects the voice quality of the speaker within the psychological or emotional states. If the topic is exciting or joyful, voice rises and when it is time to be calm, the voice descends into a bass level. One of the distinctive features of vernacular is usage of double added prepositions as in up on it (line 4). Besides, the use of double negative is common in this vernacular compared to Standard American English. Is is used to structure strong positives and emphasize meanings (line 8). Negatives are formed different from standard American English e.g. use of aint as a general negative indicator (line 11). Appendix 2 Mostly a v substitution occurs in the vernacular unlike Standard English. When using profanity in combination with the F word, speakers pronounce M.F. correctly just like in Standard American English in order to emphasize the meaning (line 2). Unlike the standard, there are words in vernacular that indicate the possessive: e.g. in line 4 them is used for they. If in the context of the sentence a reference is made to more than one(plural), it is not necessary to add an s to the noun: e.g. like in line 5. Also it can be seen that want to is converted into wanna in line 3. African American English speakers have a large repertoire of slang words uncommon to Standard American English. The bread in (line 6) refers to money in African American English. There is th dropping within the African American English as in (line 7) with is pronounced as wif. The phonetic feature of African American English is quite different from standard American English e.g.; solve them is converted to solveem which is continuous sound in one word that can be considered as the compressed phonetic feature of the vernacular (line 9). There is also consonant reduction in African American English: consonant sounds in letters such as (T) are often not pronounced unlike Standard American English (line 11). In the media images; low and middle class African Americans have a negative image: associated with marginal lifestyles; engaged in bad things. For example; (appendix 2, line 10) it is clearly implied that 50 Cent participated in gangster activities, as he raps in African American English. But the re-scaling process of media within semantic positioning, such as In the hood they say theres no bness like hoe bness ya know which cross over into ridiculous representations of unsophisticated ideals and ambitions which, most likely, are unattested practices either in low or middle class black communities. Vernacular has always had a impacted hip hop and rap genres by incorporating meanings (power, money, love, slang idioms) that are historically and contextually situated and relevant to experiences of African American communities. Here vernacular serves as a translator engine, a special tool to express these meanings. This is because, for the African American communities the dialect is not only a variety that one may hear or speak within the community but also a variety delivering local community knowledge, wisdom. For example; the slang idiom Im the love doctor (in line 9 appendix 1), the nickname usually associated with the late Barry White, whose soulful voice is considered by many Americans to be the ultimate music for seduction, is also interpreted by African youth through vernacular. The other speech communities can also access to vernacular; via popular media. That is how popular media spreads certain linguistic-traits around the world and influences the language of all communities; as opposed to having this communication confined to vernacular society. However, it should be noted that media is only spreading out whats there but the creator of the change is not the media, it is someone different (in our case, somebody in vernacular). Given that the standard American English is a political sign for the African Americans which also imply the rejection of their culture; 50 Cent sings especially in vernacular to empower himself within the social and cultural contexts of the African American communities. His vernacular speech also functions as a resistance language towards the white community. It can be assumed that he presents himself as the retainer of local New York, Queens as the low variety vernacular he has chosen to use, which incorporates loss of voiceless y and central off-glides as her becomes /hà ¶/ in (appendix 1, line 13) which New York accent is famous for. All in all, this ordinary performance involves no visuals but only audio and follows the authentic values which emphasize the potential meaning of the restricted language. 50 Cent seems to be following the guidelines of Clarke and Hiscock (2009) on how keeping it real in rap involves reflecting local realities as well as respecting the African American origins of the genre. While it can be quite difficult to assess the precise role of the media and its figures in language change, perhaps this issue should be looked in two categories: The direct and the indirect influence of popular media and its figures. As to the direct influence of them over the language change, the answer should be parallel to that of Chambers: at the deeper reaches of language change sound changes and grammatical changes the media have no significant effect at all (Chambers 1998: 124). The re-scaling process on cultural norms and shaping the vernacular features of media domains is greatly exaggerated. Consequently, language change is the result of the growing prestige of a certain variety of language that is triggered by the social factors such as the non-conformity issues of communities with a vernacular alongside with the standard language. That being said, the media can be considered as having an indirect influence on language change. As also seen in the analyzed example, media plays a major role in raising the awareness to the change taking place; to this growing prestige of a variety within other speech communities as well. In short, it can be concluded that, language change is unlikely to be driven directly by media or its role models only; but they have an indirect impact on it.

Comparing Tone in To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time and To His Coy Mistress :: Robert Herrick Andrew Marvell Literature Essays

Comparing Tone in To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time and To His Coy Mistress â€Å"To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time† by Rober Herrick and Andrew Marvell’s â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† have many similarities and differences. The tone of the speakers, the audience each poem is directed to, and the theme make up some of the literary elements that help fit this description. The tone of â€Å"To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time† and â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† are different. In Herrick’s poem, his tone is relaxed. For instance when he writes, â€Å"Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, /Old times is still a-flying,† his word choice has a very relaxed and casual tone. His attitude reflects the relaxed tone in his poem. In Marvell’s poem, his tone is serious. Marvell’s purpose is to persuade his mistress to have sex with him. He tries to lure her in when saying, â€Å"Had we but World enough, and Time.† He starts out very seriously, in attempt to convince his mistress. The relaxed tone of â€Å"To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time† and serious tone of â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† point out the difference in the way the writers feel about their characters. Both poems are directed to two different audiences. In â€Å"To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time† Herrick is speaking to all virgins. He never addresses anybody personally. In â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† Marvell is addressing his mistress personally. He wrote the poem for his mistress to convince her to become intimate with him. The difference makes a change because now Herrick’s poem affects the reader (depending on if she is female) since it refers to all virgins. However, Marvell’s poem does not since he is referring to one particular individual. The them of â€Å"To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time† and â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† is carpe diem. The carpe diem them states, â€Å"life is brief, so let us seize the day.† In â€Å"To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time† Herrick simply states: Then be not coy, but use your time, And, while ye may, go marry; For, having lost but once your prime, You may forever tarry. Herrick is telling all of the your virgins to go out and have sex in their prime because if they do not, they will regret not having sex when they had the chance to.

Reverse Innovation

Reverse Innovation Reverse Innovation, the term coined by two Dartmouth University Professors Vijay Govindarajan and Chris Trimble refers to any innovation that is first introduced in the Developing countries with an intention to later launch it in the western or developed markets. Reverse Innovation is also popularly known as Trickle-up Innovation. It is so called because generally, all innovations have first been made in developed countries and then bought to developing economies.So far companies have been starting their globalization efforts by removing expensive features from their established product, and attempt to sell these de-featured products in the developing world. This approach, unfortunately, is not very competitive, and targets only the most affluent segments of society in these developing countries. Reverse innovation, on the other hand, leads to products which are created locally in developing countries, tested in local markets, and, if successful, then upgraded for sale and delivery in the developed world.The Evolution of Reverse Innovation: A Historical Perspective The globalization journey of American multinationals has followed an evolutionary process which can be seen in distinct phases. Phase 1 — Globalization —Multinationals built unprecedented economies of scale by selling products and services to markets all around the world. Innovation happened at home, and then the new offerings were distributed everywhere. Phase 2 — Glocalization — In this phase, multinationals recognized that while Phases 1 had minimized costs, they weren’t as competitive in local markets as they needed to be.Therefore, they focused on winning market share by adapting global offerings to meet local needs. Innovation still originated with home-country needs, but products and services were later modified to win in each market. To meet the budgets of customers in poor countries, they sometimes de-featured existing products. Phase 3 à ¢â‚¬â€Local Innovation — In this phase, the first half of the reverse innovation process, multinationals are focusing on developing products â€Å"in-country, for country. † They are taking a â€Å"market-back† perspective.That is, they are starting with a zero-based assessment of customer’s needs, rather than assuming that they will only make alterations to the products they already have. As teams develop products for the local market, the company enables them to remain connected to, and to benefit from, global resource base. Phase 4 — Reverse Innovation — If Phase 3 is â€Å"in country, for country,† Phase 4 is â€Å"in country, for the world. † Multinationals complete the reverse innovation process by taking the innovations originally chartered for poor countries, adapting them, and scaling them up for worldwide use.Of course this is a simplified view of the world, but in essence it holds true. Now, more than ever, success in developing countries is a prerequisite for continued vitality in developed ones. Why Reverse Innovation is so important Developing countries like India, today, with their increasing disposable incomes, and the largest and ever surging middle class with higher than before spending capacitates, is now a very lucrative and potent target market for many global companies to venture into and capitalise on or to establish a stronger hold.Though the middle class in India today can afford to spend an extra buck for their added necessities and interests, they still find the products developed in the western economies out of reach, highly priced or unaffordable. Clearly, the products developed in the western or developed economies for their average income families would find very less consumers in countries like India despite having the world’s largest middle class population, simply because Indian Consumers’ price to features requirements of products do not match with that of the products developed in western markets for their average income families.Simply de-featuring the product and introducing the less featuristically loaded product model in the emerging markets would not attract them any more either. FIVE SUBSTANTIAL NEEDS GAPS In fact, the needs and opportunities in the developing world are so different from those in the rich world that the very first requirements for reverse innovation success are humility and curiosity. You must let go of what you’ve learned, what you’ve seen, and what has brought you the greatest successes. In fact, it is best to assume that you have just landed on Mars.Yes, buyers in the developing world have less money — but that is only the obvious beginning. The differences run much deeper. In fact, there are at least five enormous gaps that separate needs in the rich world from those in the developing world: the performance gap, the infrastructure gap, the sustainability gap, the regulatory gap, and th e preferences gap. Performance Gap Simply put, with fewer dollars in hand, buyers in the developing world are willing to accept lower performance. This sounds simple enough, but it is not as straightforward as it at first appears.Consider a typical â€Å"good-better-best† rich-world product line. When global corporations headquartered in the rich world export to the developing world, the tendency is to focus just on the â€Å"good† offering, or perhaps even to water down the â€Å"good† offering a little bit further, from â€Å"good† to â€Å"fair,† to achieve the lowest possible price point. This seems sensible enough on the surface. The problem is that a modest price cut — say, 10 percent — is not nearly enough to make a difference to mainstream customers in the developing world, who may have only one-tenth the income of buyers in the rich world.Such low incomes, however, do not mean that developing world customers do not need innov ative products. Indeed, what they need is radically reinvented designs that deliver at least decent performance at an ultra-low price. But there is no way to deliver 50 percent performance at a 15 percent price by diluting existing offerings. The only way to get there is to start from scratch, considering entirely new technologies. Infrastructure Gap In the rich world, most every citizen has access to modern transportation, communication, and energy systems, plus schools, hospitals, banks, courts, and more.In the developing world, most infrastructure is mostly still under construction. This does not mean, however, that developing nations can only gradually catch up. Precisely because they are building from scratch, they can invest in the most modern technologies. Meanwhile, the rich world will only invest as existing infrastructure reaches replacement age, and, even then, will be constrained by the necessity to make any new systems compatible with what already exists. As a result, d eveloping nations are hot, new construction markets, while rich nations are tepid maintain, repair, and replace markets.The infrastructure gap, however, affects much more than infrastructure products and services. It affects any offering that relies on infrastructure — anything that plugs in, connects to a network, or moves from place to place, and more. Rich world offerings are designed with the implicit assumption that they will be consumed by those with access to rich-world infrastructure. Logitech’s mouse was designed for use in the office, not in the living room, because people in the rich world still largely â€Å"consume† video entertainment via cable or satellite, with no mouse in sight.Such offerings do not export well, so an innovation strategy is a must. New offerings must be designed with the developing world infrastructure in mind. In major cities, this may mean an enviable, next-generation infrastructure. In rural areas, it may mean no infrastructu re at all. When GE designed an ultra-low-cost portable EKG machine for rural India, for example, one of the top considerations was long battery life. Sustainability Gap Worldwide, as the economy grows, the conflicts between economic vitality and environmental sustainability are likely to become more severe.That said, the pressures will not rise uniformly. In many cases, the intensity of sustainability issues are highest in the developing world. Winning in emerging markets requires recognition of these differences. In certain cities in China, for example, air pollution problems are extreme. As such, it is hardly a surprise that China is poised to take the lead in electric cars. Regulatory Gap When regulations function appropriately, they eliminate business behavior that is at odds with societal good.They keep consumers safe and markets fair. That said, when regulations become too complex, captured by vested interests, or technologically out-of-date, they can become needless barriers to innovation. Regulatory systems in the rich world are the result of decades of development while those in the developing world may be incomplete. Whether this is good or bad from a societal perspective is well beyond the scope of this paper, but the difference can make the developing world a more favourable environment for innovation in certain cases.Products and services designed around rich world regulations may become needlessly complex or expensive for developing world markets. Preferences Gap The world’s great diversity of tastes, preferences, rituals, and habits adds spice to international travel. It also sometimes makes it nearly impossible to achieve full potential in the emerging economies through a simple strategy of exporting existing offerings. PepsiCo, for example, is developing new snack foods, starting with a new base ingredient. Corn is not nearly so ubiquitous in India as lentils, so Pepsi is commercializing lentil-based chips.Because of these five of enorm ous needs gaps, the commonplace strategy of trying to win in the emerging economies by making light adaptations of successful rich world offerings is inadequate. Reverse innovation is the antidote, and reverse innovation is clean-slate innovation. It starts with reassessing customer needs from scratch. Dimensions| Summary| Definitinon| Any innovation that is first introduced in the Developing countries with an intention to later launch it in the western or developed markets. Reverse Innovation is also popularly known as Trickle-up Innovation. Origin| Globalization – Glocalization- Local Innovation- Reverse Innovation| Need| Glocalization has proved effective in reaching the top segments of the market in developing nations—buyers with needs and resources similar to those in the developed world. However, most growth opportunities in emerging markets are not at the top but in the middle market and below, where the gaps between customers’ needs and those of their de veloped world counterparts are enormous. Gradually a new approach is emerging, one that starts with the recognition that if you want to succeed in emerging markets, you must innovate for them.But that isn’t the end of the story. Because the global economy is richly interconnected, innovations developed for emerging economies can be extended to other markets, including those in the developed world. To do this a company must adopt a reverse-innovation mind-set, which means valuing the products that come out of emerging markets and being willing to rethink the underlying assumptions in its developed-world businesses. | Gaps that lead to reverse innovation| There are five phases or ‘gaps’ that need to be identified and evaluated: performance, infrastructure, sustainability, regulatory and preferences. Examples| Tata Motors – Tata NanoWhile companies like Ford set up its global automobile platform in India and catered to the niche premium segments in India, Tat a introduced the Tata Nano for the price conscious consumer in India in 2009. Tata plans to launch Tata Nano in Europe and U. S. subsequently. GE – GE MAC 800GE’s innovation on the GE MAC 400 to build a portable low-cost ECG machine to cater to the rural population who cannot afford expensive health care was launched as an improved version a year later in 2009, in U. S. as MAC 800.Procter and Gamble (P&G) – Vicks Honey Cough – Honey-based cold remedyP&G’s (Vicks Honey Cough) honey-based cold remedy developed in Mexico found success in European and the United States market. Nestle – Low-cost, low-fat dried noodlesNestle’s Maggi brand – Low-cost, low-fat dried noodles developed for rural India and Pakistan found a market in Australia and New Zealand as a healthy and budget-friendly alternative. Xerox – Innovation ManagersXerox has employed two researchers who will look for inventions and products from Indian start-ups that Xerox can use for North America.The company calls them as‘innovation managers’Microsoft – Starter EditionMicrosoft is using its Starter edition’s (targeted at not so technically savvy customers in poor countries and with low-end personal computers) simplified help menu and videos into future U. S. editions of its Windows operating system. Nokia – New business modelsNokia’s classified ads in Kenya are being tested as new business models. Nokia also incorporated new features in its devices meant for U. S. ustomers after observing phone sharing in GhanaHewlett-Packard (HP) – Research Labs in IndiaHP intends to use its research lab to adapt Web-interface applications for mobile phones in Asia and Africa to other developed markets. Godrej – Chotukool RefrigeratorIn February 2010, Godrej Group’s appliances division, Godrej & Boyce Manufacturing Co Ltd test-marketed a low-cost (dubbed the world’s lowest-priced model at R s 3,250) refrigerator targeted mainly at rural areas and poor customers in India. The product runs without a compressor on a battery and cooling chips.The company wants to use a community-led distribution model (as an alternative channel of distribution) to push for product growth. Tata – Swacch – World’s cheapest water purifierSwacch means clean in Hindi. Tata launched the water purifier – Tata Swacch targeting the rural market in India with the cheapest water purifier in the market. The product does not require running water, power or boiling and uses paddy husk ash as a filter. It also uses silver nanotechnology. It can give purified water enough to provide a family of five drinking water for a year.The company feels it will open a whole new market. Pepsico – Kurkure and AlivaPepsi is planning to give developed markets (particularly West Asia) a taste of its salted snack Kurkure (and also another snack Aliva). The product enjoys huge success in India and has become a Rs 700 crore brand within a decade of its launch. The success is attributed to product innovation and a good marketing strategy. E. g. Made from corn, rice and gram flour, zero per cent trans fats and no cholesterol, Rs-3 small packs for pushing sales in the lower-tier towns.Bharat Forge – Maintenance Management PracticeThe best practices group at Bharat Forge, a large Indian manufacturer and exporter of automobile components implemented a maintenance management practice it developed in India (developed over 15 to 18 years) in its units it acquired in countries (known for sophisticated engineering) in Germany, Sweden and U. S. The maintenance management process focused on minimizing downtime during machine maintenance and has an advanced information system that predicts problems before they happen.Consequently, Bharat Forge plants globally are very efficient and have an average down time of less than 10 per cent. KFC – Taco Bell – Yum! Res taurantsKFC test-marketed Krushers, a range of chilled drinks in the cold beverages segment in India and Australia and plans to introduce it to other markets. The launch in India was very successful as ‘Krushers’ accounts for 8 per cent of KFC’s beverage sales in India. Yum! Restaurant’s Tex-Mex chain Taco Bell has one Indian-designed dessert (tortilla filled with melted dark chocolate) on Taco Bell’s US menus.Husk Power SystemsIn India, Husk Power Systems brings light to rural population (over 50,000) by using locally grown rice husks to produce electricity (a unique and cost-effective biomass gasification technology). The company has also received seed capital from Shell foundation in 2009 to scale up operations. LG – Low-cost Air Conditioners (AC)South Korea based LG Electronics (LG) planned to develop low-cost air conditioners targeting the middle and lower-middle classes in India. Their goal was to manufacture air conditioners at the cos t of air coolers which were very common.Renault – LoganRenault designed a low-cost model of its brand Logan for Eastern European markets. It also sold in the Western European markets later on. Better Place – Smart Grid of Battery charging/Swap terminalsIn Israel, Better Place, a electric vehicle (EV) services provider (creates systems and infrastructure that support the use of electric cars), created an intelligent grid of battery-charging terminals and battery-swap stations. The company is now present in many countries like China, Japan, Australia, the U. S. , Canada, France and Denmark.GE India – Steam TurbinesIn 2010, GE’s Indian arm tied up with Triveni Engineering and Industries Ltd to manufacture steam turbines in the 30-100MW range. The company plans to then take advantage of lower input costs incurred in manufacturing and export these products to markets in West Asia, Indonesia, Europe and Latin America. Coca-Cola – eKOCoolCoca-Cola’ s Indian arm Hindustan Coca-Cola Beverages introduced eKOCool, a chest cooler operating on solar energy with a capacity to store about 4 dozen 300 ml glass bottles. The innovation also charges a mobile and solar lanterns.Coca-Cola has plans to pilot the innovation in different cities in India and may be it will introduce it in other developed countries as well. Vodafone – ZoozoosVodafone, which operates in more than 30 countries has plans to make its lovable characters – Zoozoos go international. Zoozoos the black-and-white animated creatures, in fact are actual human beings and are quite a rage in India where they were launched in marketing ads and look like aliens and speak an alien language. But the brand message is very clear to people across all age groups.Vodafone has also licensed the characters (and accessories) for retail merchandise across India. Coca-Cola – Minute Maid’s PulpyMinute Maid’s Pulpy was extremely popular in China. It was bas ically an orange juice with pulp. Coca-Cola introduced it in other countries as well. Wal-Mart – Small format stores in MexicoWal-Mart learnt a lesson in Mexico. Mexican shoppers preferred smaller stores compared to the large format stores Wal-Mart had in the U. S. By 2012, Wal-Mart had 1,250 small stores (Bodegas Aurrera stores) out of 2,138 stores in Mexico.Wal-Mart then opened similar small-format stores in the U. S. and Latin America. Levi’s – dENiZEN brand imported to the U. S. In 2010, Levi Strauss & Co. launched its dENiZEN brand jeans in China. This was the company’s first brand launched outside of the United States. With success, the brand quickly spread to India, South Korea, Singapore and Pakistan markets. In July 2011, the brand began selling in the U. S. in Target stores. | Variables which Promote Reverse Innovation 1. Income gap- between the consumers of developing and developed countries . Preference Gap- Differing tastes and preferences of consumers of emerging markets 3. Infrastructure Gap- Need of development in the field of Communication Energy transportation. India doesn't have an established telecom infrastructure, for example, so they have gone straight to cellular telephones and skipped the landline. That's resulted in innovation driven by infrastructure gaps. 4. Sustainability Gap- Sustainability issues that are more pressing in poor countries than in rich countries. For instance, air pollution is a big problem in China.Air pollution is also an issue in the West, but it is a very big problem in China. If China wants to grow, it has to control air pollution. Electric cars, as a result, would be expected to be more attractive to the Chinese. 5. Performance Gap- What consumers in emerging markets need is radically reinvented designs that deliver at least decent performance at an ultra-low price. But there is no way to deliver 50 percent performance at a 15 percent price by diluting existing offerings. The only w ay to get there is to start from scratch, considering entirely new technologies. . Regulatory Gap- Regulatory systems in the rich world are the result of decades of development while those in the developing world may be incomplete. The difference can make the developing world a more favourable environment for innovation in certain cases. 7. Growth opportunities in Emerging Markets like India, China 8. Limitations of Glocalization- The top 10 percent of the people in a poor country like India are similar to those in the United States, so you don't need new innovation for them. You can send them products that Americans consume.But the top 10 percent is a very slim number. The rest of the population requires innovation. How would Reverse Innovation benefit India: Primarily Reverse Innovation would lead to further boom in industrialisation. As more and more Multinationals adopt and opt to produce and/or invent new products in India for local as well as western markets, the Indian econom y would witness an increase in FDIs and also the Indigenous Multinationals would instinctively raise their investments to build advanced R;D facilities that would inspire cutting edge innovation and engineering.It also means the engineers would experience higher employment opportunities, and the consumer market would profit from better products developed to cater to their needs at reasonable prices. Besides OEMs, Reverse Innovation would also lead to the overall development of the entire eco-system comprising of Tier I and II suppliers, technology vendors, educational institutions which support, fortify and facilitate this unprecedented growth through concurrent engineering, providing smart and agile engineering and production solutions to complex challenges, and development of resources.Reverse innovation is bringing the countries and global markets further closer by fading the global borders to make â€Å"one world, one market† phenomenon a more reality. Reverse innovation would provide further impetus to the globalization while increasing the influence of cross economic dependency and making cross border production and marketing viability plausible and effective.

Lopez Surname Meaning and Origin

Lopez is a  patronymical surname meaning son of Lope. Lope comes from the Spanish form of Lupus, a Latin personal name meaning wolf. The Lopes variation of this surname often originates from Portugal. Lopez is the  21st most popular surname in the United States and the 4th most common Hispanic surname. It is also among the top five most common last names in Argentina. Surname Origin:  Spanish Alternate Surname Spellings:  Lopes, Lopaz, Lopas Famous People with the Surname Lopez Jennifer Lopez - American actress and pop singerGeorge Lopez - comedianMario Lopez - American actorJosà © Là ³pez Portillo y Pacheco - former President of MexicoFrancisco Solano Là ³pez - former President of ParaguayNancy Lopez - popular LPGA American golfer Genealogy Resources for the Surname Lopez 100 Most Common U.S. Surnames Their MeaningsSmith, Johnson, Williams, Jones, Brown... Are you one of the millions of Americans sporting one of these top 100 common last names from the 2000 census? Common Hispanic Surnames Their MeaningsLearn about the origins of Hispanic last names, and the meanings of many of the most common Spanish surnames. Lopez Family Tree WebsiteA Web site for all descendants of Basilio Là ³pez and Sabina Jalandoni from the Basilio Lopez Family Association. Lopez Group DNA ProjectThe Lopez Family Project at FamilyTreeDNA seeks to find common heritage through sharing of information and DNA testing. Any variant spellings of the Lopez surname, including Lopes, are welcome. Lopez Family Genealogy ForumSearch this popular genealogy forum for the Lopez surname to find others who might be researching your ancestors, or post your own Lopez query. FamilySearch - LOPEZ GenealogyFind records, queries, and lineage-linked family trees posted for the Lopez surname and its variations. LOPEZ Surname Family Mailing ListsRootsWeb hosts several free mailing lists for researchers of the Lopez surname. DistantCousin.com - LOPEZ Genealogy Family HistoryFree databases and genealogy links for the last name Lopez. References: Surname Meanings Origins Cottle, Basil. Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967.Menk, Lars. A Dictionary of German Jewish Surnames. Avotaynu, 2005.Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia. Avotaynu, 2004.Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges. A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989.Hanks, Patrick. Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003.Smith, Elsdon C. American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.